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F–6/7 HASS

Subject

Glossary

absolute location

Location measured by the coordinates of latitude and longitude. Also see relative location.

absolute majority

The minimum number of votes required, which is more than half of all votes, that is, 50 per cent plus one, to make a democratic decision by a group.

active citizenship

Involvement and informed participation in the civic and political activities of society at local, state, national, regional and global levels. It contrasts with ‘passive citizenship’ where citizens participate only minimally to meet their basic individual responsibilities including voting and paying taxes.

AD

A part of a dating system, an abbreviation of ‘anno Domini’, meaning ‘in the year of our Lord’; the years after the birth of Christ.

aerial photograph

A photograph taken from the air, which can be oblique (taken at an angle) or vertical (taken from straight above the ground); the former being easier for young students to interpret.

ancient

As defined in the Australian Curriculum: History, the ancient period covers history from the development of early human communities (from 60 000 BCE) to the end of late antiquity (around 650 CE).

Anzac Day

A national remembrance in Australia for the troops that fought at Gallipoli in Turkey (April–December 1915) during World War I, and for Australians who have fought in subsequent conflicts. The acronym ANZAC refers to the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC).

artefact

Something made or shaped by humans for their use, such as a stone tool, a metal sword, a letter, a plastic toy, usually of historical interest.

Asia

As defined in the Australian Curriculum: History, Asia refers to the territorial area that extends from the western border of Pakistan, to the northern border of Mongolia, the eastern border of Japan, and to the southern border of Indonesia.

attachment to place

People’s emotional feelings about and identification with places, which can contribute to their personal wellbeing and sense of identity.

Australian democracy

A system of government grounded in liberal democratic values and a belief in civic engagement. It includes a written constitution, a well-established representative parliamentary process based on the Westminster system, and a constitutional monarch.

Australian Government, the

The national government of the Commonwealth of Australia, which is also known as the federal government or the Commonwealth Government. It was established by the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act at the time of Federation.

basic standard of living

A standard of living adequate for the health and wellbeing of a person and his/her family, including food, clothing, housing, medical care, necessary social services, the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his/her control, special care for mothers and children, and social protection for all children.

BCE

An abbreviation of ‘before the Common Era’. It is the same dating system as the traditionally used BC, meaning ‘before Christ’. Historical dates before the birth of Christ are classified as BCE. There is no year zero in this dating system, so the year CE 1 immediately follows the year 1 BCE. Also see the CE.

biodiversity

A variety of living organisms and ecosystems they form. Biodiversity has direct value as consumable or useful commodities, indirect value through the provision of ecosystem services, and intrinsic value independent of its utility to humans.

blue water

In geography, fresh water in rivers, lakes and dams.

burden of proof

In law, an obligation to prove what is alleged. In criminal cases, this obligation rests on prosecution, which must prove its case beyond reasonable doubt. In civil cases, it rests on a plaintiff, who must prove his or her case on the balance of probabilities. Sometimes, however, this burden shifts, for example, where a defendant raises particular defences.

business

An organisation, enterprise or business engaged in the production and trade of goods or services, usually for profit.

business environment

Contemporary events or trends that influence a business, industry or market.

Cabinet, the

The Cabinet consists of the most senior ministers, including the Prime Minister. The Cabinet's role is to make major policy decisions, including decisions about spending, appointments and introducing legislation.

capital

In economics and business, all physical equipment (machinery, buildings, infrastructure) used by human labour in a process of production, for example, a secretary uses a computer; a farmer uses a mechanical plough. In modern economies, intellectual property and knowledge are types of human capital – necessary resources in the production of goods and services.

A study of and practice of map making, including construction of projections, design, compilation, drafting and reproduction, which aims to model reality in ways that communicate spatial information effectively.

cause and effect

Used by historians to identify chains of events and developments over time, short-term and long-term.

CE

An abbreviation of `Common Era’. It is the same dating system as the traditionally used AD, short for the Latin phrase anno Domini, ‘in the year of our Lord’. Historical dates after the birth of Christ are classified as CE. There is no year zero in this dating system, so the year CE 1 immediately follows the year 1 BCE. Also see BCE.

characteristics of places

Geographical characteristics of places include people, climate, production, landforms, built elements of the environment, soils, vegetation, communities, water resources, cultures, mineral resources and landscape. Some characteristics are tangible, for example, rivers and buildings. Others are intangible, for example, scenic quality and socioeconomic status.

choropleth map

A thematic map in which areas are shaded to show higher and lower values of the variable, for example, population density.

chronology

A study of time. In history, chronology involves an arrangement of events in order, as in a timeline.

circular flow of income

An economic model that provides a theoretical and simplified representation of operations of an economy, depicting interactions between various sectors of the economy (household, business, finance, government and foreign sectors) and the flows of resources and income between them.

citizen

A person who holds citizenship of a polity, such as a country, and who is a member of a political community that grants certain rights and privileges to its citizens, and in return expects them to act responsibly such as to obey their country's laws. Also see global citizen.

citizenship

In the Australian Curriculum: Humanities and Social Sciences, there are two uses of the term:

  • A legal status granted by birth or naturalisation to citizens involving certain rights (for example, protection, passport, voting) and responsibilities (for example, obey the law, vote, defend country). A modern sense incorporates three components: civil (rights and responsibilities), political (participation and representation), and social (social virtues and community involvement).
  • An identifiable body of knowledge, understanding and skills relating to the organisation and working of society, including a country's political and social heritage, democratic processes, government, public administration and judicial systems.
civic life

A participation one has within a community or communities as distinct from private and family life.

civics

An identifiable body of knowledge, skills and understandings relating to the organisation and working of society. It refers to a nation’s political and social heritage, democratic processes, government, public administration and legal system.

civility

Habits of people that display courtesy, politeness and formal regard for others. These behaviours contribute to society’s effective functioning.

climate

A long-term average (minimum 30 years) of weather conditions at a place. For example, some climates are hot and wet all year (Singapore); some have hot, wet summers and warm, dry winters (Darwin); and some have warm, dry summers and cool, wet winters (Adelaide and Perth). Climates can be classified into distinctive types, such as equatorial, tropical, temperate, Mediterranean, semi-arid and arid. These types are found in similar locations around the world.

climate graph

A graph showing average monthly temperature (by a line) and rainfall (by columns) for a location.

climatic zones

Areas of the earth that have similar climatic conditions. The major zones are hot, temperate and polar and are roughly demarcated by lines of latitude.

common good

A term that is popularly understood as sharing of resources among a community for the benefit of that community as a whole. The common good is often seen as a utilitarian ideal representing the greatest possible good for the greatest possible number of individuals as opposed to the private good for individuals or sections of society.

common law

A body of English law traditionally based on custom and court decisions. Also known as case law or precedent, it is law developed by judges through decisions of earlier courts and an understanding of current context. Also see statute (statutory law).

comparative advantage

According to comparative advantage, all countries can gain from trade with each other, regardless of their factor endowments (land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship). Given a choice of producing two products, a country is said to have a comparative advantage when it specialises in the production and export of particular goods and services that it can produce more efficiently; that is, at a lower opportunity cost than competitors.

competitive advantage

An advantage that a business holds over others in its industry, sector or location. The advantage means that a business is able to sell more of a product, or operate at a lower cost, or better meet the needs of consumers. Competitive advantage usually implies that a business is more profitable than its competitors.

concept

Any general notion or idea that is used to develop an understanding of the past, such as concepts related to the process of historical inquiry (for example, evidence, continuity and change, perspectives, significance) and concepts that are culturally significant to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, such as Country/Place.

conservation and preservation

Conservation is careful management of the environment and natural resources, acknowledging that they may be changed in order to affect a better future for humankind, but not if the impacts on them are too great. Alternatively, preservation is an act of maintaining the existing condition of environmental areas as yet untouched by humans.

constitution

Fundamental principles on which a state or other organisation (such as a club) is governed. Usually, this takes the form of a legal document setting out specific powers for a government or governing of that entity.

constitutional monarchy

A form of monarchy in which a monarch acts as a country’s head of state according to law as required by the constitution and that in exercising his or her discretionary powers, the monarch as head of state acts on advice of responsible ministers, excluding exceptional circumstances.

consumer

A person or a group that is the final user of goods and services produced within an economy.

contestability

An inescapable characteristic of history that occurs when particular interpretations about the past are open to debate, for example, as a result of a lack of evidence or different perspectives.

continuity and change

Are both evident in any given period of time and apply to the material and immaterial world, continuities being aspects of the past that remain(ed) the same over certain periods of time.

continuous resources

Those resources, such as solar or wind energy, whose availability is unaffected by their use by humans. Also see environmental resources.

conventions

In Civics and Citizenship, unwritten rules of political procedure based on traditional, established practices that are widely accepted. Australia’s political system has adopted many of the unwritten conventions of the British Westminster system. Conventions may defy the Constitution; for example, the procedure for the appointment of Australia’s Governor-General.

cost-benefit analysis

Determination and evaluation of benefits and costs of a project or decision. The evaluation includes monetary and non-monetary effects.

Country/Place

In the Australian Curriculum, Country in this instance refers to a space mapped out by physical or intangible boundaries that individuals or groups of Aboriginal Peoples occupy and regard as their own. It is a space with varying degrees of spirituality.

Place (as it pertains in Country/Place) is a space mapped out by physical or intangible boundaries that individuals or groups of Torres Strait Islander Peoples occupy and regard as their own. It is a space with varying degrees of spirituality.

culture

A body of beliefs, attitudes, skills and tools by which communities structure their lives and interact with their environments.

custodial responsibility

An obligation that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have to care for the Country/Place on which they live, even if they are not traditional owners of that Country/Place. Traditional owners have primary responsibility for Country/Place.

customary law

Acknowledged behaviour by individuals and groups, which recognise benefits of behaving in accordance with other individuals' expectations and customs. In the Australian Curriculum, this refers to the customarylaw of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples; however, in Australia, customary law is subject to constitutional and common law. Also see common law and statute (statutory law).

data

Information that is directly recorded, which can be quantitative or qualitative.

demand

In economics and business, an amount of a good or service that consumers are willing and able to purchase at a particular point in time.

democracy

A system of government where power is vested in the people, who may exercise it directly or through elected representatives, and who may remove and replace their political leaders and government in free and fair regular elections.

depth study

As described in the Australian Curriculum: History, a detailed study of specific aspects of a historical period, for example, a particular society, event, movement or development. It gives students an opportunity to develop and apply concepts and skills of historical inquiry. A depth study commonly employs investigation of a range of sources, and may include site and museum visits.

development

Economic, social and political changes that improve the wellbeing of people.

digital mapping tools

Software programs that draw maps.

digital media

Data generated in a computer, that is, digital audio, digital video, the World Wide Web and other technologies.

direct action

People participating in person and directly on issues they seek to change, within the bounds of the law.

distribution

In social sciences, arrangements of data or items, for example, in geography, arrangements of items in particular places (distribution of population in a country, distribution of forests across the world).

division of powers

Vesting of powers within different levels of government. Under the Australian Constitution, the Commonwealth Government was vested with specific powers while the states retained general powers. In practice, the distribution of powers has become increasingly centralised over time.

economic development

A quantitative (output and value) and qualitative (wellbeing) improvement in the standard of living.

economic growth

An increase in the quantity of goods and services produced in an economy over a period of time; an increasing ability of society to satisfy the needs and wants of its people.

economic sustainability

Economic activity that supports the economic needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

economic system

A system that coordinates production and distribution of goods and services.

economics

A social science (study of human behaviour) that studies decisions made by individuals, households, businesses, governments and other groups about how scarce resources are allocated in attempting to satisfy needs and unlimited wants.

economy

All activities undertaken for the purpose of production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a region or country.

ecosystem

A functioning unit of nature defined by a complex set of relationships among its living organisms (such as microorganisms, plants, animals, humans) and its non-living components (such as water, minerals, soil, air), where all organisms and components are interdependent through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Every unit can be explored at macro levels (such as the planet) or as specific limited areas.

ecosystem-based management

Management based on improving health of an ecosystem producing commodities rather than on maximising production of individual commodities, for example, by increasing biodiversity, restoring hydrological systems, protecting marine breeding areas or rebuilding soil structure and fertility.

electors

People who have the right to participate in an election and chose to do so.

empathy

As defined in the Australian Curriculum: History, engaging with past thought and feelings through a historical inquiry.

empire

An extensive group of states or countries ruled over by a single monarch, or a sovereign state, which exercises political, economic and cultural rule or control over the people within, such as the Roman Empire and the British Empire.

energy flow

A flow of energy through a biological food chain; a movement of energy around an ecosystem through biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) means. Also referred to as ecology.

enterprise

A business unit, company or project that is profit-oriented, non-profit, privately owned or government-controlled, and that combines scarce resources for a production and supply of goods and services, and especially may require boldness or effort. Alternatively, the term may refer to an undertaking of a project or business.

entrepreneur

A person who sets out to build a successful business in a new field. Entrepreneur’s methods are sometimes regarded as ‘ground-breaking’ or innovative.

environment

A setting and conditions of an area in which activity occurs, and where features may be natural, managed or constructed.

environmental functions

Functions of an environment that support human life and economic activity are:

  • production of raw materials from the natural resources of soil, water, forests, minerals and marine life (the earth’s source function)
  • safe absorption (through breakdown, recycling or storage) of wastes and pollution produced by production and human life (the earth’s sink function)
  • provision of environmental or ecosystem services that support life without requiring human action, for example, climatic stability, biodiversity, ecosystem integrity and protection from ultraviolet radiation (the earth’s service function)
  • intrinsic recreational, psychological, aesthetic and spiritual value of environments (the earth’s spiritual function).
environmental quality

Characteristics of a local environment that affect human physical and mental health and quality of life, for example, an extent of air and water pollution, noise, access to open space, traffic volumes, and visual effects of buildings and roads.

environmental resources

Resources sourced from an environment, which can be classified as renewable, non-renewable and continuous.

environmental world view

A person’s view of the relationship between humans and nature. This ranges from human-centred (in which humans are separate from nature, and any environmental problems can be solved by technology) to earth-centred (in which humans are a part of and dependent on nature and have to work with nature).

equity

A perceived fairness of the way scarce resources are used and the way benefits of production are distributed.

ethical protocols

Involves an application of fundamental ethical principles when undertaking research and collecting information from primarysources and secondarysources, for example, confidentiality, informed consent, citation and integrity of data.

evidence

What can be learnt from a historical source to help construct a historical narrative. Also see primary source and secondary source.

executive

Also known as the Crown or the government. An institution that develops and implements policies and administers the law in Australia. It comprises the Governor-General (or Governor at the state level), the ministry and the public service.

Executive Council

A constitutional mechanism for providing ministerial advice to the Governor-General. The Executive Council, which is comprised of ministers and presided over by the Governor-General (or Governor, at the state level) meets to advise the Governor-General or Governor to approve decisions that have been made by the Cabinet. Once approved, decisions are given effect by the public service.

export industries

Industries that sell a service to customers who come from other places to obtain the service, as in tourism and education of students from overseas. Both industries bring income into a place.

factors of production

Resources used in the production of goods and services classified as land, labour, capital and enterprise.

features of places

In geography, visible elements of a place or landscape, classified as natural, managed and constructed. This term is used in early primary education, but is later replaced by the term ‘characteristics’, which includes both visible and invisible elements of a place.

federalism

A principle of government, which defines a relationship between the central government at the national level and its constituent units at the regional, state or local levels. In Australia, federalism is the division of powers between the federal government and the states and territories.

fieldwork

Any activity involving observation and recording of information outside a classroom. It could be within the school grounds, around neighbouring areas or in more distant locations.

geographical inquiry methodology

A process of gathering information from primary sources and secondary sources as part of the geographical inquiry process. Geographical inquirymethodologies involve skills needed to formulate questions, and initiating, planning and implementing an inquiry relevant to a geographical issue, process or phenomenon.

geographical processes

Physical and human forces that work in combination to form and transform the world, for example, erosion, hydrological (water) cycle, migration or urbanisation. Geographical processes can operate within and between places.

geographical significance

Why a question is worth investigating.

geomorphic

Relating to a form, shape, structure or surface of the earth or its topography.

geomorphic hazard

A hazard originating from the lithosphere, including volcanic eruption, earthquake, tsunami and mass movement (landslides or avalanches).

geomorphic landscape

An area defined by a distinctive set of landforms produced by a distinctive set of geomorphic processes, for example, a riverine, arid or coastal landscape.

global citizen

A person who understands their rights and responsibilities at a global level; that is, one’s identity transcends geography or political borders, and rights and responsibilities are derived from being human. However, these rights and responsibilities do not have legal authority or sanctions that those conferred by a nation have.

goods

Tangible items that satisfy needs and wants, and that can be seen and touched.

Governor-General

A representative of a monarch at the federal level in Australia. The Governor-General exercises most of the monarch’s powers in relation to Australia at the federal level, while state governors exercise those powers with respect to the Australian states. Other powers are conferred upon the Governor-General by the Constitution and statutes. In exercising his or her powers, the Governor-General is bound by convention to act on an advice of his or her responsible ministers, except in relation to matters such as appointment and dismissal of a Prime Minister.

green water

In geography, water available for plant growth as soil moisture. Almost all of the world’s natural vegetation, and most of its agriculture, depend on soil moisture.

Harmony Day

A national day, held in Australia, which celebrates Australia’s cultural diversity and promotes intercultural understanding and peace.

hazards

In geography, when forces of nature combine to become destructive and have potential to damage the environment and endanger communities.

historical inquiry

In history, a process of investigation undertaken in order to understand the past. Steps in the inquiry process include posing questions, locating and analysing sources and using evidence from sources to develop an informed explanation about the past.

housing density

The number of dwellings per hectare. Data required to calculate this measure can be obtained from Australian Bureau of Statistics 2011 Census QuickStats and community profiles.

human rights

Rights that come from being human. That is, the basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled, often held to include the right to life and liberty, freedom of thought and expression, and equality before the law.

human wellbeing

Quality of life of a population. This can be measured by objective indicators, for example, life expectancy, educational attainment and income, or by subjective measures of how people perceive the quality of their life, as revealed by surveys of happiness.

human–environment systems thinking

A method of analysing complex interactions between an environment and people, which is able to integrate environmental with attitudinal, demographic, social, economic, technological and political factors. Systems thinking seeks to understand the whole rather than its parts, and see patterns of change over time rather than just as a snapshot in time. The drivers–pressures–state–impact–response (DPSIR) model used in the Australian State of the Environment report (SoE 2011) is an example of a human–environment system. Systems can be extended to include elements, for example, values and beliefs.

hydrological systems

Systems of water movement on, above and below the surface of the earth.

identity

A person’s conception and expression of their individuality or association with a group. In this curriculum, identity refers to a person's sense of belonging to a group, culture or to a state or nation, a region or the world. It is a feeling one shares with a group of people, regardless of one's citizenship status.

industrialism

An introduction of machinery to produce large quantities of goods using fuel-based technology. Industrialisation involves a division of labour and a development of factories and cities.

industry sector

An area of a business operation. Businesses operate in the primary, secondary and tertiary industry sectors. The primary industry produces goods through the use and extraction of natural resources (for example, agriculture and mining). The secondary industry is concerned with converting primary industry materials into finished goods (for example, manufacturing, textiles and food). The tertiary industry provides services (for example, information, tourism and telecommunications).

interdependence

A joint dependence between participants in an economy; that is, the reliance of consumers, workers, businesses and governments on each other. In modern economies, people tend to specialise in the production of a good or service, and trade that item for another that they could not provide or produce for themselves.

internal migration

Movement of people from living in one defined area to living in another within a country, for example, movement from cities to non-metropolitan coastal locations, or between states and territories.

interpretation

In history, an explanation of the past, for example, about a specific person, event or development. There may be more than one interpretation of a particular aspect of the past because historians may have used different sources, asked different questions and held different points of view about the topic.

inter-regional transfer of water

A transfer of water from one river basin to another, for example, the transfer of water from the Snowy River to the Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers in the Snowy Mountains Scheme.

land and water degradation

Degradation of the health of land and water resources through human actions in ways that threaten ability of these resources to maintain their environmental functions. Degradation includes salinity, accelerated soil erosion, soil fertility decline, soil acidification, spread of weeds, loss of biodiversity and habitats, and water pollution.

landform

Individual surface features of the earth identified by their shape, for example, dunes, plateaus, canyons, beaches, plains, hills, rivers and valleys.

landscape

A visible appearance of an area, created by a combination of geological, geomorphological, biological and cultural layers that have evolved over time, and as perceived, portrayed and valued by people. A geomorphic landscape is the landscape without the biological and cultural layers.

law

A system of rules that a particular country or community recognises as regulating the actions of its members and which it may enforce by an imposition of penalties and sanctions.

liberal democracy

An approach to political arrangements that takes the view that the ideal political system should combine majority rule by the people with the protection of the political, legal and social rights of individuals and minority groups.

lithosphere

The solid portion or crust and upper mantle of the earth, also called the geosphere, which is distinguished from atmosphere and hydrosphere.

liveability

An assessment of what a place is like to live in, using particular criteria, for example, environmental quality, crime and safety, education and health provision, access to shops and services, recreational facilities and cultural activities.

local area

An area around a student’s home or school that can be explored in a few hours. The local level of scale refers to all areas of similar size.

market

An exchange of goods, services or resources between buyers and sellers.

media

Forms of communication between a source and receivers including television, radio, print media and the internet, as well as forms of social media. The term usually refers to mass media and the ability of media to inform and influence people. Media are key players in democracies where citizens need to be informed, influenced and open to a diversity of views.

modern

As defined in the Australian Curriculum: History, the modern period covers history from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution around 1750 CE to the present.

multicultural

A preservation of different cultures or cultural identities within a unified society such as a state or nation.

multi-faith

A society characterised by support for, or free activity of, religions within the bounds of the law.

narrative

In history, a way of making sense of the past based on a selection of events. There are different types of narrative such as accounts of the past that relate a story (for example, personal, fictitious) and historical recounts (for example, the course of events during the Second World War).

native title

The name given by the High Court of Australia to Indigenous property rights recognised by the court in the Mabo judgement (3 June 1992). The Mabo judgement overthrew the concept of terra nullius – that the land of Australia had belonged to no-one when the British arrived in 1788.

natural vegetation

Vegetation that has evolved in an area over time.

needs

In economics and business, a good or service that consumers consider necessary to maintain their standard of living.

non-government organisation (NGO)

A group that is organised at a local, national or international level around a common interest and on a non-profit, voluntary basis. NGOs mostly operate independently of a government, but when funded by a government, still maintain their independence.

non-profit

A business that uses surplus funds to achieve its goals rather than distribute these funds to the owners. These often exist in the form of charities, service organisations and clubs.

non-renewable resources

In geography, those resources that cannot be renewed, for example, minerals. Soils that have been degraded can only be renewed over long timescales. Also see environmental resources.

opportunity cost

What you have to forgo if you choose to do A rather than B; the value of the next best alternative that is foregone whenever a choice is made.

oral histories

People’s spoken recollections of the past, sometimes recorded through an audio or video interview.

outline map

A map that only gives very basic information so that more detail can be added, for example, a map showing borders of a country.

overview

As described in the Australian Curriculum: History, an overview provides a conceptual and chronological framework for understanding a particular historical period. It can consist of key features, events, developments and broad patterns of historical change. An overview provides a context for a depth study.

parliamentary democracy

A system of government in which executive is formed from, and responsible to, a parliament, and a head of government (for example, the Prime Minister) is different from a head of state (for example, the Queen).

pattern

In social sciences, a regularity in data portrayed in graphs or maps, for example, a decline in population density or rainfall in Australia with increasing distance from the coast.

perception

In geography, people’s subjective assessment of places and environments.

perspective

In humanities and social sciences, a world view or a set of ideas or beliefs that guide actions. Perspectives draw on a person’s or group’s age, gender experiences, cultural or religious background, ideologies and/or intellectual contexts, which influence their world view and inform their opinions, values, and actions. Two types of perspective can be considered: those ‘of’ people, and perspectives ‘on’ events and phenomena of the past and present. Also see point of view.

place

In geography, parts of the earth’s surface that are identified and given meaning by people, which may be perceived, experienced, understood and valued differently.

point of view

Looking at someone or something from a location or position. In the Australian Curriculum: Humanities and Social Sciences, an individual’s view about a particular person, event or phenomena, which may be irrational and/or immediately sensed, or deeply considered and reflective. Also see perspective.

population pyramid/profile

A graph showing the age and sex composition of a population.

preferential voting

A system of voting to rank candidates in order of preference. It is necessary for a winning candidate to achieve an absolute majority (50 per cent plus one). If no candidate achieves an absolute majority, a candidate with the fewest number of first preferences is excluded from the count, and his or her votes are distributed among the remaining candidates according to second preferences. This process is continued until one candidate achieves an absolute majority. It is the dominant form of voting in Australian politics (as compared with simple majority systems of voting).

preservation and conservation

Preservation is an act of maintaining the existing condition of environmental areas as yet untouched by humans. Alternatively, conservation is a careful management of an environment and natural resources, acknowledging that they may be changed in order to affect a better future for humankind, but not if the impacts on them are too great.

prevention, mitigation and preparedness

In geography, prevention and mitigation are actions taken in advance to decrease or eliminate an impact of a hazardous event on people, communities and the environment, by actions including, for example, lessening a hazard and reducing a vulnerability of a community. Preparedness refers to actions taken to create and maintain a capacity of communities to respond to, and recover from, natural disasters, through measures like planning, community education, information management, communications and warning systems.

primary sources

In history, objects and documents created or written during the time being investigated, for example, during an event or very soon after. Examples of primary sources include official documents, such as laws and treaties; personal documents, such as diaries and letters, photographs, film and documentaries. These original, firsthand accounts are analysed by a historian to answer questions about the past.

In geography, unprocessed, original materials collected by a student, for example, field notes from observations, measurements taken from experiments, or responses received from a survey or questionnaire.

producer

In economics and business, individuals and/or business involved in a production of goods and services.

proportional representation

A representation of parties, groups or individuals in a legislature in proportion to the number of votes they receive in an election. In Australia, proportional representation describes the way candidates are elected in multi-member electorates such as the Senate.

referendum

A principle or practice of referring measures proposed or passed by a legislative body to a vote of an electorate for approval or rejection. In Australia, a referendum is a vote of the Australian electors on a proposed change to the Constitution by the Commonwealth Parliament that must be approved by a majority of the aggregate of all voters from each state and territory, and also by a majority of voters in a majority (four) of the six states.

region

An area in which various parts have something in common, which distinguishes them from neighbouring regions. Regions can be divisions of a nation, for example, the Wheatbelt of Western Australia; or larger than a nation, for example, South-East Asia or a climatic zone. The latter are called ‘world regions’ in the Australian Curriculum.

relative location

A location relative to other places, for example, a distance to a town from other towns. Relative location has a stronger influence on human characteristics of places than absolute location, as demonstrated by advantages of closeness to suppliers, finance, information and markets for businesses, and to education and employment opportunities for individuals. Also see absolute location.

religion

An organised system of human values, which recognises spiritual or transcendent dimensions in life.

remote

Distant, far away, for example, a place distant from major population and economic centres.

renewable resources

Resources that are or can be renewed within a relatively short time, for example, water through a hydrological (water) cycle; and plants, animals and marine life through reproduction. However, overuse of a renewable resource can lead to its disappearance, as with an over-exploitation of a fishery or an over-extraction of groundwater. Also see environmental resources.

representation

In geography, demonstrating geographical information in a visual form, for example, a graph, map, image, field sketch or a multilayered map.

representative democracy

A system of government in which electors choose representatives to a parliament to make laws on their behalf.

resource allocation

The assigning of limited resources to produce goods and services to meet society’s needs and unlimited wants.

resources

A means to produce goods and services that satisfy needs and wants. The four economic resources (factors of production) are land, labour, capital and enterprise. Production usually requires a combination of resources.

rights and responsibilities

Entitlements and obligations that are associated with living in Australia. Rights and responsibilities are a cornerstone of modern democracies. While all people in Australia enjoy certain rights (for example, freedom of speech), there are also responsibilities (for example, paying taxes, jury service). Citizens also have the right to vote and the responsibility of voting at elections.

rule

A requirement to behave in a particular way; a set of explicit or understood regulations or principles governing conduct or procedure within a particular area of activity, for example, school rules, rules of cricket. Rules are usually developed and set by people who have the power and authority to create and enforce them.

rule of law

A legal principle that decisions by government are made according to established principles and that all citizens are subject to the law and equal before the law. Embedded within the rule oflaw is the idea that people accept and follow, but also change as needed, laws as agreed by a political process and upheld by independent courts.

satellite image

A digital image captured by a satellite above the earth’s surface, for example, those combined in Google Earth. They can be processed to measure specific aspects of the land surface, for example, areas of water or cropland.

scale

In geography, there are two uses of the term ‘scale’:

  • A way that geographical phenomena and problems can be examined at different spatial levels, such as local scale and global scale (spatial scale)
  • A relationship between a distance on a ground and a corresponding distance on a map, with the scale coded on the map as a ratio, for example, ‘1 cm:100 km’ (map scale).
scarcity

An economic problem of having needs and unlimited wants, but limited resources that can be used to achieve those needs and wants.

scattergram graphic organiser

A graphic organiser to record collected data to reveal correlations, for example, dates and ages of death collected from a scan of a cemetery.

seasonal calendar

A classification of weeks or months of a year into seasons. The standard classification is spring, summer, autumn and winter, but this is a temperate zone concept imported from Europe. In northern Australia, the seasons are commonly described as the wet and the dry. Aboriginal cultures have much more complex classifications, and these vary considerably from region to region across Australia because they are finely tuned to local climates and changing availability of food and other resources.

secondary sources

In history, accounts about the past that were created after the time being investigated, and which often use or refer to primary sources and present a particular interpretation. Examples of secondary sources include writings of historians, encyclopaedia, documentaries, history textbooks and websites.

In geography, sources of information that have been collected, processed, interpreted and published by others, for example, census data, newspaper articles, and images or information in a published report.

secular

Relating to worldly rather than religion; things that are not regarded as religious, spiritual or sacred. For example, a secular society is one governed by people’s laws through parliament rather than by religious laws.

separation of powers

A doctrine that the three arms of government – the executive, the legislature (parliament) and the judiciary – are separate and independent, with powers that act as a check and balance on each other. In Australia, the separation between the executive and the legislature is weak because the executive is drawn from the legislature, but the separation between the judiciary and the other two arms of government is strong and is enforced by courts.

settlement pattern

A spatial distribution of different types of human settlement, from isolated dwellings to villages and outstations, towns, regional centres and large cities. Smaller settlements typically form spatial patterns around larger settlements.

significance

Pertaining to events, periods, developments, perspectives and ideas of the past, which are regarded as having important consequences, duration and relevance to the present, from the point of view of society or ordinary people when contextualised to larger events.

social connectedness

A measure of a number and strength of people’s social relationships with other people. These relationships or connections may be with people in the same place or in other places, and they can be face-to-face connections or electronic. The opposite of good social connections is social isolation or loneliness.

social justice

A concept that all people have the right to fair treatment and equal access to the benefits of society.

social sustainability

An idea that current generations promote social inclusion, cohesion and accountability so that future generations should be able to have the same or greater access to social resources as the current generations.

source

Any written or non-written material that can be used to investigate the past, for example, coins, photographs, letters, gravestones, buildings, transcript. A source becomes ‘evidence’ if it is of value to a particular inquiry.

space

In geography, a three-dimensional surface of the earth on which everything is located and across which people, goods and information move.

spatial association

In geography, similarity in spatial distributions of two or more phenomena. A spatial association suggests that there may be a relationship between the phenomena, which can then be explained through an operation of atmospheric, hydrologic, geomorphic, biological, socioeconomic or political processes.

spatial distribution

An arrangement of particular phenomena or activities across the surface of the earth.

spatial technologies

Any software or hardware that interacts with real-world locations. A use of spatial technologies forms the basis of many geographers’ work practice. The Global Positioning System (GPS), Google Earth, geographic information systems (GIS) and satellite images are the most commonly used spatial technologies to visualise, manipulate, analyse, display and record spatial data.

spatial variations

A difference or variation (in terms of population, population density, gross domestic product (GDP), life expectancy) over an area of the earth’s surface.

standard of living

A level of wealth and consumption of a population (such as a nation or socioeconomic group), measured by using factors such as gross domestic product (GDP), inflation, income, employment, poverty rate, housing, access to and standard of health care and education, safety, and environmental quality.

statute (statutory law)

In Australia, a statute is a written law, also known as an act of parliament or legislation, which commences as a bill, is passed by the parliament and has received royal assent (by the Governor-General or a governor, or, in very rare cases, directly by the monarch). A statute may commence upon royal assent, or a specified date, or upon a date declared in a proclamation. Also see common law.

stewardship

One of many world views that informs ways of achieving sustainability. When applied to the environment, stewardship is an ethical position that supports careful management of environmental resources for the benefit of present and future generations. Stewards do not own resources; they only manage them.

supply

An amount of goods and services that are available; an amount of goods that producers are willing to offer for sale.

sustainability

An ongoing capacity of an environment to maintain all life, whereby the needs of the present are met without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

sustainable development

A development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development values resources for their future as well as current uses.

system

A group of interacting objects, materials or processes that form an integrated whole. In geography, biophysical systems include humans and their activities and impacts.

term

In the Australian Curriculum: History, a word or phrase used to describe an abstract aspect or feature of the past (for example, colonisation, revolution, imperialism, democracy) and more specific features (for example, pyramid, gladiator, temple, rock shelter).

terra nullius

A concept in international law meaning 'a territory belonging to no-one' or 'over which no-one claims ownership'. The concept has been used to justify the colonisation of Australia. Also see native title.

thematic map

A map that portrays a specific type of information, for example, rainfall, transport routes, climatic zones or population distribution.

topographic map

A detailed, large-scale map of a part of the earth’s surface, which illustrates the shape of a land and selected natural and human features from the surrounding environment.

trade-off

A sacrifice that must be made when choosing how to use resources. The preferred (next best) alternative is known as the opportunity cost.

trend

A pattern in change over time in a set of data.

urbanisation

A process of economic and social change in which an increasing proportion of the population of a country or region live in urban areas.

vegetation corridor

Strips of vegetation that connect larger but isolated vegetated areas. They enable movement of animals and plants between places, reduce ecological effects of habitat fragmentation and help protect biodiversity.

voting

A means of formally expressing opinion or choice on an issue or electing a representative. The term is frequently understood in relation to government as a formal expression of preference for a candidate for office or for a proposed resolution of an issue within a parliament.

wants

A good or service that is desired in order to provide satisfaction to a user, but which is not necessary for survival or to meet the basic standard of living in a community.

water scarcity

A lack of sufficient available water resources to meet the demands of water usage within a place. It can result from an absolute shortage of water (physical water scarcity), lack of money to utilise an adequate source of water (economic water scarcity) or the unequal distribution of water resources due to political or ethnic conflict.

wellbeing

An overall measure of quality of life for individuals and society.

West Asia (Middle East)

The countries of Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Iraq and Iran. Afghanistan is sometimes included in the region, or in Central Asia. ‘West Asia’ is also known as the ‘Middle East’.

Westminster system

A system of parliamentary government, also known as responsible government, which evolved in England and was adopted in its colonies, including Australia. It is based on the principle that the executive government is responsible to the people through the parliament. The executive government is formed by those who command the support of the lower House of Parliament. Ministers, including the Prime Minister, are members of a House of Parliament and are accountable to it. There is a separate, largely ceremonial, head of state, an independent public service and an independent judiciary that applies the rule oflaw.

world region

Biophysical, geographical, economic or political regions larger than a nation, for example, the Sahara Desert, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Global North and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

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